How Many Roman Emperors were Assassinated? (Pt. 1)

Though being a Roman Emperor was empowering, it was also rather dangerous. It wasn’t uncommon for an emperor to end up assassinated, evidenced by the fact that thirteen Emperors alone met this fate between the first Emperor to be assassinated in 41 AD to the assassination of Maximinius Thrax in 238 AD. The number doesn't stop there, either - several more would be assassinated in the following years up to 480 AD.

This post focuses on the first five Emperors to be assassinated, along with two special mentions at the end. Part two of this list will be forthcoming, so keep an eye out for that!

1. Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC)

Technically, Julius Caesar wasn’t an emperor, but I’m including him in this list because he was well on his way to becoming one. In fact, it was his startling accumulation of power that caused him to be assassinated in the first place (or so the conspirators claimed).

‘Beware the Ides of March’ is a phrase well-known to many of us today. The Ides (March 15) was the day Caesar was assassinated, and it has since become famous for this. It may surprise you to know that some history enthusiasts commemorate it each year! (Seriously, just search for it on Tumblr or Twitter/X if you don’t believe me.)

Several ancient writers recorded the assassination, the most prominent being Appian, Cassius Dio, Livy, Plutarch, Nicolaus of Damascus, and Suetonius. Although each writer reported a slightly different version of the events, we can get a rough idea of what happened on that fateful day.

The conspirators had decided to strike during the last Senate meeting before Caesar headed off on campaign on March 18. On the morning of, however, he woke up feeling unwell. This, combined with pleas from his wife Calphurnia, temporarily convinced him to stay at home. It wouldn't be this way for long, though, since Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (not to be confused with his more famous cousin and tragic hero of Shakespeare's play, Marcus Junius Brutus) was sent to change his mind. Luckily for the conspirators, he succeeded and accompanied Caesar to his doom.

It was feared that Mark Antony, Caesar’s co-consul for that year, would offer resistance. Therefore, the assassins had Gaius Trebonius detain Antony in conversation outside whilst the rest of them committed the deed. The attack was instigated by Lucius Tillius Cimber, who first pretended to petition Caesar to recall his exiled brother. He then grabbed Caesar’s toga and yanked it down, signalling the beginning of the attack. 

The sources differ somewhat over who attacked when, but it is generally agreed that Publius Casca struck the first blow to Caesar’s shoulder. After that, several other conspirators jumped in and began stabbing Caesar. By the end of the attack, he was left with twenty-three stab wounds. Twenty-three wounds and fifty-nine attackers (Trebonius remained outside). Clearly, group projects were as problematic in Ancient Rome as they are in the modern world!

Assassination of Julius Caesar created by Vincenzo Camuccini (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

2. Caligula (12 - 41 AD)

Discounting Julius Caesar, Caligula (called ‘Gaius’ by the sources) was the first Emperor to be assassinated. He was assassinated at the Palatine Games by members of the Praetorian Guard. The group was led by two Praetorian tribunes, Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus. The former, in particular, had reason to hate Caligula. Many times before, Caligula had mocked Chaerea for having an effeminate voice. Whenever he asked Caligula for the watchword, Caligula would give him suggestive replies in return; when Chaerea had to thank Caligula for anything, Caligula would force him to kiss his hand before throwing offensive gestures at him. It’s more than likely, in Chaerea’s case, that the motives for assassinating Caligula were personal.

Interestingly, an oracle apparently warned Caligula to ‘beware of Cassius.’ Caligula believed that the oracle referred to Gaius Cassius Longinus, governor of Asia. This was likely because this particular Cassius had a habit of boasting about his ancestor, the Gaius Cassius Longinus, who participated in the assassination of Julius Caesar. Longinus may have participated in the plot against Caligula, but this hasn’t been confirmed. In any case, the oracle was actually talking about Cassius Chaerea, not Cassius Longinus. If only the oracle had been a little more specific...

It isn’t clear precisely what happened when Caligula was assassinated. According to Suetonius, when Caligula temporarily left the Palatine Games, Chaerea came up behind him and stabbed him in the neck. Closely following him was Cornelius Sabinus, who struck Caligula in the breast. However, he also reports a second version: Chaerea asked Caligula for the watchword. Caligula gave it, to which Chaerea then struck him in the jaw. He was then finished off with thirty more blows. In addition, Cassius Dio claimed that some people even chewed pieces of Caligula’s flesh - which, if true (and it likely isn’t), probably looked extremely weird to anyone who happened to be observing.

3. Galba (3 BC - 69 AD)

Servius Sulpicius Galba was the first Emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors, supplanting the maniacal Emperor Nero in 68 AD. He was from an ancient patrician family and, funnily enough, was a descendant of Servius Sulpicius Galba - one of Julius Caesar’s assassins.

Galba’s rule lasted less than a year (nine months, according to Dio) before he was assassinated by his successor, Otho. Suetonius claims that one of the most significant contributors to his downfall was his avarice, as demonstrated in his refusal ‘to pay the soldiers the donative which he promised them.’ On 1 January, Galba - already getting on in his years - decided to appoint a successor after the legions of Upper Germany, with Vitellius at their head, decided to revolt. The problem was that this successor wasn’t Otho. Otho, desiring this position for himself, was prompted to form a group of conspirators among the Praetorians, resulting in the assassination of Galba in broad daylight on 15 January 69. Galba’s head was then placed on a pole and paraded around for all to see. 

If it were any consolation to Galba, Otho ended up ruling as Emperor for even less time - around three months in total before committing suicide. In a way, I suppose he got his comeuppance for ‘[seizing] the empire by the most villainous trick’?

4. Vitellius (15 - 69 AD)

Vitellius succeeded Emperor Otho after the latter committed suicide in April 69. Although he has been praised for displaying restraint when dealing with Otho’s supporters after the suicide of their leader, he has also been widely criticised for his gluttony and inefficiency. Just before his death, some allegedly called him out on being ‘an incendiary and glutton.’

Aureus of Vitellius, minted between January-April 69 AD (Source: Classical Numismatic Group)

In July, his rival Vespasian was hailed as emperor in the East with the support of virtually all the Eastern troops. To make matters worse, Vitellius was swiftly deserted by several of his legions, including the troops in Pannonia and Moesia. Following suit were those in Judea and Syria, some of whom openly swore allegiance to Vespasian as the new emperor. When his remaining supporters were routed by the Flavians (Vespasian’s army), Vitellius was persuaded to abdicate in the hopes of smoothing things over. However, his attempts to abdicate were blocked by a Roman mob.

When Vespasian’s army entered Rome, they eventually found Vitellius and dragged him out of his hiding place. Then, they proceeded to treat him rather brutally - they dragged him into the Forum half-naked with a rope around his neck and his head being held up by the hair. A sword was placed under his chin to force him to look forward rather than down at the ground in his shame. Amidst this, various terms of abuse were also hurled at him. Eventually, he was put to death - Suetonius claims that the process was long and torturous - before being dragged away to the Tiber. He would then be succeeded by Vespasian, finally ending the Year of the Four Emperors.

5. Domitian (51 - 96 AD)

Although Vespasian evaded assassination as Emperor, the same cannot be said of his youngest son, Domitian. Unlike many of the assassinated Emperors, he was popular with the Praetorians and has been praised for his efficiency, conscientiousness, and his diligence in managing legal affairs. However, he was unable to form a stable relationship with the Senate. One of his downfalls in this regard was his arrogance when dealing with the Senate. After a conspiracy in 87 and a failed rebellion in 89, Domitian grew increasingly paranoid of those whom he perceived to be his opponents. An incident that showcases this tendency well is the report that he executed twelve ex-consuls during his reign on suspicion of being involved in a conspiracy. 

Although some caution - especially when you’re a Roman Emperor - is a good thing, Domitian took it too far. Suetonius believes that the tipping point was when Domitian had his own cousin, Flavius Clemens, put to death ‘upon some very slight suspicion.’ This encouraged the belief that Domitian’s paranoia was out of control and that anybody could be suspected next. Soon enough, some of his closest associates (one of which was his chamberlain, Parthenius) were prompted to plot his death. It came in September of 96. According to Suetonius, Domitian was convinced by Parthenius to return to his chamber at six o’clock in the morning, under the impression that a visitor wished to speak to him about something important. Upon his entry, he was killed. He was stabbed first by Stephanus, a steward to his wife, then by Clodianus, one of his guards, and by several others. The end result was seven stab wounds and his death.

6. Commodus (161 - 192 AD)

In stark contrast to his father, Commodus is infamous for being one of Rome’s worst Emperors. Most lists will have Commodus’ name somewhere. It probably comes as no surprise, then, that he also appears on this list of assassinated Roman Emperors.

Bust of Emperor Commodus (Source: J. Paul Getty Museum)

Commodus was evidently difficult for many Romans to get along with. He was egotistical and quite possibly mad. From portraying himself as Hercules to murdering Senators and attempting to re-found Rome in his image after many parts of the city were destroyed in a fire during 191, Commodus’ violent and megalomaniacal nature seemingly saw no bounds. Soon enough, many people—particularly Senators—feared for their lives. 

The tipping point came when his mistress, Marcia, discovered her name on a list of people Commodus intended to execute, including the prefect Laetus and another Roman called Eclectus.  In response, they arranged to have him murdered. After an attempt to poison Commodus failed, they sent in his wrestling partner, Narcissus, to strangle him in the bath. Indeed, this was how Commodus met his end. And with his death came the Year of the Five Emperors...